Throughout the Hawaiian Islands, poor management of industrialized agricultural lands is eroding topsoil. The erosion of topsoil, in the unique geographical position of the Hawaiian Islands, needs to be questioned, studied and halted. The process of sugarcane burning leaves the soil bare and without ground cover, and this leads directly to a high amount of soil vulnerable to erosion caused by water and wind. Using drip irrigation to irrigate the sugarcane fields, the direct application of pesticides and fertilizers to the soil leads to increased alkalinity and possible desertification of soil. Industrial sugarcane plantations are no longer viable in Hawaii. The agricultural practices of plantation mono-cropping should diversify with reforestation, fruit and nut farms, vegetables and a multitude of other self-sustaining farms, replacing the plantation model.
The history of sugar plantations in Hawaii and their role in the overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy is certainly controversial. Ward Churchill writes in his book, Islands In Captivity, in 1848, “the king and the ali`nui reluctantly agreed to the privatization of land” (Churchill). Foreigners, (non-native Hawaiians) quickly bought up tracts of land and assumed control over Hawaii. The land was divided between the government ali`i nui (leaders) and maka`ainana (people who lived on the land). However, Churchill writes, out of 88,000 Hawaiians, only 8,200 maka`ainana were awarded land. Most of these plots were only three acres, with is only one percent of the total acreage of the islands (Churchill). Missionaries received 650 acres apiece as an award for bringing Christianity and “enlightenment” to the islands. Once the land was “under control,” several former missionaries invested in sugar plantations. Once the sugar plantations matured, they discovered that distributing their product to the US was very difficult. The U.S. imposed a tariff on sugar imports in order to protect its own sugar industry. U.S. businessmen called for the annexation of Hawaii as a territory but were thwarted by King Liholiho `Iolani.
During the American Civil War, sugar grown in Hawaii grew even more important to the United States. The South, where most of the U.S. had their sugar fields, was beleaguered by the war and the Northern States looked to Hawaii for their sugar. On August 12, 1893, the Hawaiian Government was overthrown by Lorrin Thurston and Sanford B. Dole. Dole became the provisional President, before turning over Hawaii to the United States government (Tighe). President Grover Cleveland called the overthrow “an act of war” (Tighe). Now that Hawaii became a territory of the United States, the plantation owners became stronger. The native Hawaiian population became too small for the plantations to exploit, so the plantations imported thousands of workers from the Continental U.S., China, Japan and eventually the Philippines to work in the fields. The plantations gathered in strength and built an sugar-based economy in Hawaii. The sandlewood and koa forests were cut down and sold for their lumber. The forests were turned into fields for the plantations. With the deep rooted trees cut down and their stumps uprooted, the process of eroding topsoil, through poor management of industrial agricultural fields began.
Erosion has always been a part of the Hawaiian Islands and has created the wonderful waterfalls, verdant deep valleys, and deep rich topsoil. For millions of years, the eroding volcanoes have become deeply cut and gullies have formed. In fact, the Northern Hawaiian Islands are smaller than their southern counterparts due to long periods of erosion. According to Jim Watson of the United States Geology Survey, “The oldest volcanic rocks on Kauai… are about 5.5 million years old and are deeply eroded. By comparison, on the "Big Island" of Hawaii… the oldest exposed rocks are less than 0.7 million years old”(Watson). However, in the last three to four hundred years, erosion on the Hawaiian archipelago has steadily increased and reached a point where it is dangerously close to becoming serious threat to sustaining agricultural lands.
The reefs that provide the surf breaks so many of us enjoy are one of the forgotten victims of topsoil erosion. However, after even light rains, every bay along the North Shore of Maui is a dark red color, instead of the deep blue and white wash. Peter Weber of USA Today reported “reefs provide immeasurable service by protecting coastal lands from the erosive forces of the sea” (Weber). If the reefs die, beach erosion will become even more drastic and miles of valuable coastline will be washed away. Houses, roads, harbors and piers, beaches, and any other property on the coast will be vulnerable to storms and tidewater. Weber writes, “in the 1992 International Symposium on Coral Reefs, Clive Wilkinson of the Australian Institute of Marine Science… estimates that, to date, people directly or indirectly have caused the death of five-10% of the world's living reefs and that, at current rates of destruction, another 60% could be lost in the next 20-40 years” (Weber). Sedimentation by sugar cane and pineapple farming removing all vegetation from their fields has an enormous negative effect on coral reefs. The sediment that rests on the coral reef initially blocks out sunlight, reducing photosynthesis. This leads to a loss of energy available which weakens the coral. To continue, the coral polyps depend on wave action to clean the sediment and the coral is forced to “produce extra quantities of mucus to try to wash off the particles” (Weber). When the coral is weakened, it is vulnerable to disease and may possibly die. Everyday that the oceans off the coasts of Hawaii are foaming red, the coral reefs are in danger. This poses a serious threat to all of the Hawaiian Islands.
In the book “Erosion and Sediment Control Guide for Hawaii,” topsoil is defined as the upper layer of soil, or the “plow layer, or upper six to eight inches of soil… [it is] a term used to indicate friable, fertile soil…”(USDA) Topsoil is where the nutrients are stored, which are used by shallow-rooted plants. It is also very vulnerable to erosion from wind or water. According to Tom Paulson, a reporter for Seattle.pi.com, the online version of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, topsoil is disappearing all over the planet. In the article Mr. Paulson quotes David Montgomery, a geologist at the University of Washington as saying, "… we are now losing about 1 percent of our topsoil every year to erosion, most of this caused by agriculture." Desertification in Africa is happening at an alarming rate, caused by grazing cattle, the cutting of forests and woody areas along with poor management of the soil through agricultural practices. China is also experiencing desertification, where “inefficient use of water resources for agriculture practices in dry zones increases the risk of soil salinization” (FAO). When waterways are diverted from their natural courses, or if the reservoirs underground are drained, topsoil becomes severely alkaline. This alkalinity leads to death of vegetation, which then leads to desertification. In China, there are over 99 million hectares of saline land throughout the country, which is a result of “inadequate irrigation practices” (FAO). Desertification is also happening in the United States, Canada and throughout Latin America. In fact, “over 30 percent of the land in the United States is affected by desertification” (UNCCD).
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) reports that “desertification is not a natural expansion of existing deserts but the degradation of land in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas” (UNCCD). Instead, desertification happens when there is a gradual loss of soil productivity, (mineral depletion) and then the loss of vegetative cover (shrubs, trees, grass). Droughts and floods play a large part in this process, along with war and economic pressure. In many cases, trees are cut down for firewood in order to cook food or stay warm. It is a difficult proposition for anyone to convince someone to go hungry or cold in order to save a tree when starvation is imminent. Because of these conditions, valuable trees are cut down and the erosion process begins. The process of forests and grasslands becoming a desert is fairly fast. The rich topsoil found in these areas took centuries to form, but once the course begins, the soil will dry up and be washed or blown away in a matter of years. This is one of the consequences that Hawaii is facing due to sugarcane farming.
For many years, sugarcane plantations were very successful in Hawaii. According to the Hawaii Agricultural Resource Center (HARC), “The first successful sugarcane plantation was started at Koloa, Kauai in 1835” (HARC). Concerned with the availability of water, irrigation ditches were dug, the first in 1856, and artesian wells were introduced in 1879 and finally mountain wells and tunnels were completed in 1898 (HARC). In a lecture by Dick Mayer given to tourists at the Maui Beach Hotel, sugar grown in the Hawaiian Islands was sold to California and fueled the Gold Rush (Mayer). To continue, he stated that before California became a top agricultural State, the Hawaiian Islands grew most of the growing West coast’s fresh produce such as potatoes, onions and corn, and then shipped the produce to California. Agriculture in Hawaii was crucial in the development of San Francisco and Los Angeles. However, sugar production in Hawaii has steadily decreased in the past 40 years. Competition from Brazil and the Caribbean, along with states such as Louisiana and Florida, has lessoned the demand for sugar grown in Hawaii. In an article which first appeared in Agricultural Outlook magazine, Annette Clauson reported that “Hawaii's sugar production peaked at 1.2 million tons in 1968, has steadily dropped since 1986…” (Clauson). Some sugarcane fields are converted into coffee and macadamia nut farms, and oftentimes, sold to developers to create new homes and developments. However, the fields that do remain in Hawaii contribute greatly to the erosion of agricultural lands.
The Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar Company’s (HC&S) website outlines the sugarcane operations in Hawaii. According to their website, HC&S fields “receive two to four passes by a 36-inch harrow… to break up the soil and facilitate water movement…[they then use] three ripper shanks which rip the subsoil” (HC&S). Cane stalks are cut into 12-inch sections, which each section having nodes from which new plants will emerge. These sections are planted in twin lines, with a spacing of three feet between the two lines and six feet between each pair of lines. Planting machines make furrows, inject drip irrigation tubing into the soil and then drop in the “seed” sections (HC&S).
Growing sugar in Hawaii is extremely dependent on irrigated water. In fact, The East Maui Irrigation Company, a subsidiary of Alexander and Baldwin owns and operates 74 miles of ditches and tunnels to deliver 450 gallons of mountain water per day to Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar Company (HC&S). The Waihee ditch system, which is owned and operated by HC&S has 12 miles of ditches and tunnels and can deliver up to 120 Million gallons per day (HC&S). There are 47 reservoirs on the HC&S plantation with the storage capacity of 1.065 billion gallons or water, along with 16 deep well pumping stations that can deliver 242 million gallons per day (HC&S). Furthermore, according the HC&S calculations, 55% of the water comes from surface runoff sources. Millions of gallons of water are delivered and administered to the cane fields. However, what happens to the fields once the sugar cane is burned off, before the fields are tilled and the new “seed” sections are planted? This is when the fields are the most vulnerable to erosion.
Sugarcane is harvested after a maturation period of two years. The fields are burned, which, according to HC&S is to reduce the amount of leafy matter, the tops and dead cane (HC&S). The burned cane is then raked by large machines and loaded into huge hauler trucks. Each of the trucks can carry 45-65 tons per load. HC&S claims that burning sugarcane is a cost effective measure, and in their supplemental web-pamphlet entitled “Cane Burning,” they state that if they “had to stop burning now, before workable green harvesting technology is developed, [they would] be out of business” (HC&S).
In contrast to the HC&S agricultural practices, an organic sugarcane farmer, and former Secretary of Agriculture in Alagoas State, in Northeast Brazil, Milton Maciel, believes that sugarcane can be grown and harvested without burning. In his article, “On Sugarcane and Soil Erosion in Brazil,” Maciel states that “depending on how a soil is managed…it may degrade severely, losing its capacity to hold water, air and life. Consequent destruction of its aggregates results in compaction and/or erosion” (Maciel). He continues, “For best results, it is mandatory that cane isn’t burned for making harvest easier” (Maciel). When the sugarcane fields are burned in Hawaii, the entire biomass is removed from the field, leaving the soil bare. What happens next is very important. When all the biomass (the leafy matter and the tops), is removed, none of the important nutrients from the detritus reaches the soil. If sugarcane was not burned, the leafy matter and tops could be tilled back into the soil, which would then add humus along with creating a stronger, better soil. This soil could then retain water and the soil would become more porous, allowing water to reach below the top layers of the surface. According to Maciel, “the combustion of trash has a tragic record for soil fertility and is a clear squandering of a very rich source of organic matter and nutrients for this soil.”
One of the fascinating aspects of the sugarcane fields are the drip irrigation lines that are placed into the ground when the “seed” cane is planted. Miles upon miles of thin black plastic lines are injected into the soil. An interesting aspect of these lines is that liquid fertilizer and pesticides are carried through the lines and dripped into the soil. After the cane is burned, the irrigation lines are scraped up and discarded. With close inspection, the berms that circle the sugarcane fields have pieces of black plastic lines protruding from them. Pushing the topsoil, the nutrient-bearing soil, to the edges of the fields, creates these berms. This causes even more erosion as evidenced by the huge plumes of dust that cloud over the fields bearing this destructive procedure.
Researcher Claude Alvares wrote a paper in 1999 entitled, “Water Efficient Sugarcane Farming,” which detailed the sugarcane practices of the Indian sugarcane farmer, “Suresh Desai.” According to his research, sugarcane cropping is very resource-intensive and that the “heavy requirement of water is one of the major question marks hanging over… sugarcane development (Alvares). Most importantly, he states that the use of artificial fertilizers (used by HC&S) lead to “a progressive decline in soil fertility since the soil fauna, including earthworms, and microbes are gradually eliminated. The more fertilizers [that] are used, the more water is required” (Alvares). Many tests have shown that the use of artificial irrigation leads to the desertification of the fields. According to Alvares, the accumulation of pesticides and fertilizers leads to salinity in soil (Alvares). When the PH level of soil becomes to alkaline, plant growth becomes severely stunted. Often times, even more water is used, because the plant looks wilted. With intensified water use, the process of salinity accelerates, and the soil becomes barren and unable to sustain any plant life. When this happens, not only are the natural resources exploited to extreme levels, but erosion, by wind and water will hasten the demise of these fields, creating dust storms and the possibility of flooding. If and when this occurs, the lush, tropical fields of Hawaii will become a desert and the reefs that surround the Islands will die off from sediments washed out to sea and be choked to death. When the reefs die, the shorelines will be vulnerable to beach erosion from the ocean waves and tides. The Hawaiian Islands are in serious danger due to our eroding soils.
In the past few years, ethanol production from sugarcane has been developed in order to produce “biofuel,” created to offset peak oil. Throughout the Southeastern United States, India, Myanmar, and Latin American nations, sugarcane is harvested to create alcohol, which is mixed with gasoline. There are many people who support the conversion of sugarcane for ethanol and rumors of sugarcane grown in Hawaii for the U.S. to use as ethanol have floated around in the past few years. However, In the article, “America Is Not Brazil,” Milton Maciel points out the differences between America’s fuel consumption and Brazil’s. Maciel states that Brazil has fewer cars and a population that is 61% of the USA’s population therefore, using Brazil as a model for America is using a variety of false premises and poor logic. According to Maciel, “Without fuel ethanol, Brazil would…need…8 million gallons [per] year of gasoline… compared to the USA’s 140 billion gallons [per] year” (Maciel). For the US to convert to corn ethanol, we would have to dedicate 350 million acres to corn, not including any corn for humans or animal feed (Maciel). Presently, the US only has 75 million acres dedicated to corn (Maciel). Furthermore, Maciel states that “it is easy to replace all gasoline when you would only need 8 billion gallons per year…”(Maciel). Ethanol created by corn or by sugarcane is not a sustainable enterprise. Sugarcane dedicated to ethanol production in Hawaii will only excaserbate our problems with erosion and replaces one problem (lack of oil) with another problem (dedicated food for gasoline replacement). In order to survive, Hawaii is going to have to diversify its agricultural practices.
However, controversy surrounds the diversification of agriculture in Hawaii. The HC&S “Operations” webpage quotes a University of Hawaii study that “shows… if all the fruits and vegetables consumed in Hawaii – by residents and tourists alike – were grown in state, they would require only about 12,000 acres more than Hawaii’s existing fruit and vegetable acreage. [This is] less than a third of HC&S’ 37,000 acres (and a small fraction of Hawaii’s total cane…acreage” (HC&S). Nevertheless, diversifying Hawaii’s agricultural practices is the key to sustaining and protecting Hawaii’s future. By diversifying our cropland from a monoculture like sugarcane or pineapple to a plethora of other crops, such as coffee, tea, fruit and nut trees; fresh produce such as lettuce and other leafy greens, tomatoes, potatoes, onions, beans, peas among many others will greatly reduce our need to import, or remove altogether, our need to import food. Food prices, which at present have reached astronomical levels, could be reduced. Reforestation of former fields on severely sloped lands would stabilize the soil and help filter precipitation from the clouds.
There are some difficulties growing certain foods in Hawaii, especially compared to sugarcane, which only demands a lot of water and fertilizer. The sugarcane pests, according to HC&S are mostly controlled by natural predatory bugs or biological control (HC&S). In my experience growing tomatoes in Hawaii, the plants are very susceptible to leaf miner, a bug that eats through the cellular walls of the tomato plant, thereby reducing the effectiveness of photosynthesis. Also, aphids and whitefly prey on tomato plants and, unlike growing in the Northern United States, they multiply unchecked by frost or freeze. Compared to sugarcane, which doesn’t apply insecticides (Pesticides, according to HC&S, include insecticides and herbicides), growing produce could increase the need for chemical pesticides. These pesticides, as stated earlier, could increase the desertification of Hawaii’s soil.
In August 2007 edition of GSA Today, a publication of the Geological Society Of America, the article entitled, “Is Agriculture Eroding Civilization’s Foundation?” proposes a unique question. Is the erosion of topsoil going to undermine civilization? In fact, the microcosm of Hawaii should serve as a reminder to the rest of the world. Every dust storm, rainfall, road paved, and new development built has a huge impact on topsoil of Hawaii. According the article in the GSA Today, “compilations of data around the world show that soil erosion under conventional agriculture exceeds both the rates of soil production…” (Montgomery). Industrial agriculture in Hawaii, using the conventional methods described by the HC&S website is using the topsoil, fertilizing it until it is alkaline and no longer viable and allowing it to be eroded by wind and water. Of course, then the sediments that are washed out to the ocean contain pesticides that kill the reefs surrounding the islands. This reef die-off allows the shoreline to become vulnerable to waves, tides and erosion. Sugarcane was once a viable economy for Hawaii, but because of globalization, industrial sugarcane in Hawaii is no longer profitable. The sugar companies have used Hawaii, and in many cases, exploited Hawaii, and have now moved on to other countries to exploit. Currently, the plantations and agricultural land in Hawaii is under siege by a new type of Baron, the large developers who buy up agricultural land and build high-priced homes. And, like the sugar Barons of old, the developer will try to skirt around the law, or they back legislators who are sympathetic to their plan. Thusly, the overthrow of Hawaii continues.
In order for Hawaii to reduce and eliminate erosion, the methodology of industrial agriculture needs to be scrutinized. Hawaii cannot afford to lose more topsoil to erosion. While global warming receives many of the headlines in the newspapers, soil erosion should be a great concern to civilizations. Historically, many wars and battles have been fought on and over fertile agricultural lands. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria in order to procure agricultural lands (Kikuchi). The battles of WWI and WWII in Europe often were fought in agricultural fields. One of the reasons Hitler invaded the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia was to acquire agricultural land and industry. The desertification in Africa has led to famine and war. Throughout the world, fertile growing grounds and clean, available water has been the driving influence of a thriving civilization. When these are threatened or destroyed, the civilization often will fall. Again, Hawaii is in a unique geological position. If the peak oil crisis occurs, as predicted, importing food to Hawaii will be cost-prohibitive. Gasoline and fuel prices will escalate and basic utilities such as electricity, water and sewage may cease to function. If this happens, Hawaii will be severely affected. By conserving and protecting topsoil, the fertile top layer of dirt, this could be Hawaii’s defense against these outside forces. According to the GSA Today, numerous studies have shown that “conventional tillage reduces soil organic matter and thereby reduces biological activity that supports soil fertility” (Montgomery). In order to reduce industrial-caused erosion, the practice of burning and tilling the sugarcane fields in Hawaii must come to an end. We cannot afford to lose any more soil to inefficient agricultural practices.
It may prove to be difficult to convert sugarcane fields to organic farms with diversified crops. After years of abuse and nutrient depletion, the topsoil found in sugar and pineapple fields is usually quite infertile. The use of “green manure,” or the use of cover crops that can be tilled into ground can help improve soil fertility. However, David Montgomery reports in the GSA Today that “with each pass of a straight, angled blade of a conventional plow lifts and turns soil over…moving it downhill little by little” (Montgomery). Every time the soil on a slope is tilled, more soil is pushed downhill. Using conventional methods to farm, like the plow, will also need to be addressed, especially on the sloped fields of the volcanoes of Hawaii. Smaller, diversified fields that don’t require huge tractors pulling plows may need to be implemented. Also, reforesting Hawaii could also increase rainfall and at least, it could trap precipitation carried by the wind. By reforesting, topsoil fertility will be increased by the amount of detritus and waste matter from the trees. Deep-rooted trees will improve the ability to control erosion and stable the soil. The under canopy of forests such shrubs and grasses protect the soil from movement. Water and sediments are trapped in this vicinity, often causing highly fertile property in these areas. Nevertheless, much work is to be done. By doing so, we may be able to offset some of the jobs lost by the slowing of the sugar economy. Hopefully, Hawaii will be able to discover a way to produce enough food, perhaps finding ways to preserve it using new technology instead of freezing food or using cans; both of which use natural resources and create waste.
Growing sugar in Hawaii is a constant reminder of its colonial past (and present). The wasteful management of the fields is a daily overthrow of Hawaii’s natural resources and with topsoil erosion, the coral reefs are inundated with pesticides and sediment. The attrition of topsoil in Hawaii can be controlled and possibly eliminated by careful management and planning by the State and its people. It should be considered that Hawaii is different because of its unique geographical position in the world. Hawaii needs to see that the agricultural practices in the Continental U.S. do not apply in Hawaii. Until we begin to work towards a self-sustaining civilization, we will continue to erode everything our society is built upon.
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